1. Chemistry of Life

2.1hr

1.1.1. Types of Chemical Bonds 5 min

1.1.2. Practice 1

1.1.3. Practice 2

1.2.1. Intermolecular Forces: Hydrogen Bonding5 min

1.2.2. Example 2 min

1.2.3. Practice 12 min

1.2.4. Practice 22 min

1.2.5. Practice 33 min

1.3.1. Intermolecular Forces: Van der Waals Interactions 11 min

1.3.2. Practice 13 min

1.3.3. Practice 2

1.4.1. Important Elements that Make Up Life4 min

1.4.2. Unique Properties of Water6 min

1.4.3. Practice 12 min

1.4.4. Practice 22 min

1.5.1. From Monomers to Polymers4 min

1.6.2. Protein Folding4 min

1.6.3. Functions of Proteins7 min

1.6.4. Example1 min

1.6.5. Practice 13 min

1.6.6. Practice 2

1.6.7. Practice 3

1.6.8. Practice 4

1.7.1. Carbohydrates (Sugars)5 min

1.7.2. Polysaccharides6 min

1.7.3. Practice 1

1.7.4. Practice 2

1.7.5. Practice 3

1.8.1. Lipids: Fats10 min

1.8.2. Lipids: Phospholipids5 min

1.8.3. Lipids: Steroids3 min

1.8.4. Example3 min

1.8.5. Practice 13 min

1.8.6. Practice 2

1.8.7. Practice 3

1.8.8. Practice 4

1.9.1. Nucleic Acids5 min

1.9.2. The DNA Double Helix5 min

1.9.3. Example2 min

1.9.4. Practice 11 min

1.9.5. Practice 22 min

1.9.6. Practice 33 min

1.9.7. Practice 445 sec

2. Cell Structure

1.7hr

2.1.1. Prokaryotic Cells5 min

2.1.2. Practice 1

2.1.3. Bacteria and Archaea Cell Wall Composition4 min

2.1.4. Practice 2

2.1.5. Practice 3

2.2.1. Eukaryotic Cells11 min

2.2.2. Illustrations of Cellular Components7 min

2.2.3. Practice 1

2.2.4. Practice 2

2.3.1. Eukaryotic Cells [Introduction for detailed courses]2 min

2.3.2. Ribosomes 3 min

2.3.3. Peroxisomes3 min

2.3.4. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts6 min

2.3.5. Plant versus Animal Cells3 min

2.4.1. Endosymbiont Theory5 min

2.5.1. The Endomembrane System2 min

2.5.2. The Nucleus5 min

2.5.3. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)4 min

2.5.4. The Golgi Apparatus3 min

2.5.5. Lysosomes, Vacuoles and Vesicles

2.6.1. Cytoskeleton Overview [short lesson]5 min

2.6.2. Microtubules6 min

2.6.3. Actin Microfilaments4 min

2.6.4. Intermediate Filaments3 min

2.6.5. Practice 1

2.6.6. Practice 2

2.6.7. Illustrations of the Cytoskeleton4 min

2.7.1. Motor Proteins5 min

2.7.2. Flagella and Cilia3 min

2.7.3. Practice 1

2.7.4. Practice 2

2.8.1. Extracellular Matrix2 min

2.8.2. Junctions and Adhesions5 min

2.8.3. Practice 1

2.8.4. Practice 2

2.8.5. Practice 3

3. The Plasma Membrane

1.1hr

4. Cell Communication

1.3hr

4.1.1. Types of Cell Communication 10 min

4.1.2. Practice 13 min

4.1.3. Practice 22 min

4.1.4. Practice 32 min

4.2.1. Internal Receptors4 min

4.2.2. G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)7 min

4.2.3. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)5 min

4.2.4. Ion Channel Receptors2 min

4.2.5. Practice 12 min

4.2.6. Practice 22 min

4.2.7. Practice 33 min

4.3.1. Signal Transduction6 min

4.3.2. Practice 12 min

4.3.3. Practice 21 min

4.4.1. Second Messengers5 min

4.4.2. Practice 12 min

4.5.1. Second Messengers9 min

4.5.2. Practice 12 min

4.5.3. Practice 22 min

4.6.1. Response to Signaling5 min

4.6.2. Practice 12 min

4.6.3. Practice 22 min

5. Energy & Metabolism

2.1hr

5.1.1. Overview of Metabolism4 min

5.1.2. Nutrients Required by Cells4 min

5.1.3. Practice 11 min

5.1.4. Practice 22 min

5.1.5. Practice 32 min

5.2.1. Redox (Reduction-Oxidation) Reactions7 min

5.2.2. Practice 13 min

5.2.3. Practice 23 min

5.3.1. The Laws of Thermodynamics8 min

5.3.2. Example 2 min

5.3.3. Practice2 min

5.4.1. Potential and Kinetic Energies3 min

5.4.2. Practice 11 min

5.4.3. Energy in Reactions7 min

5.4.4. Example 15 min

5.4.5. Activation Energy3 min

5.4.6. Gibbs Free Energy8 min

5.4.7. Practice 22 min

5.5.1. Coupled Reactions6 min

5.5.2. Example 1 min

5.5.3. Practice 1

5.5.4. Practice 22 min

5.6.1. ATP and the Proton Motive Force (PMF)6 min

5.6.2. Example1 min

5.6.3. Practice 2 min

5.7.1. Enzymes6 min

5.7.2. Enzyme Activity4 min

5.7.3. Example1 min

5.7.4. Practice 1 min

5.8.1. Enzyme Regulation10 min

5.8.2. Feedback Inhibition3 min

5.8.3. Example 13 min

5.8.4. Example 26 min

5.8.5. Practice 12 min

6. Cellular Respiration

1.5hr

6.1.1. Overview of Cellular Respiration4 min

6.2.1. Glycolysis4 min

6.2.2. Practice 1

6.2.3. Practice 22 min

6.2.4. Practice 3

6.3.1. Steps of Glycolysis: Intro and Stage I [Detailed]7 min

6.3.2. Steps of Glycolysis: Stages II and III [Detailed]9 min

6.4.1. Energy of Glucose Metabolism7 min

6.4.2. Practice 1

6.5.1. Glycolysis Regulation8 min

6.5.2. Practice 1

6.5.3. Practice 2

6.6.1. Glycolysis Full Sequence of Reactions and Summary [detailed]8 min

6.7.1. Pyruvate Processing4 min

6.7.2. Practice 1

6.8.1. The Citric Acid Cycle3 min

6.8.2. Practice 12 min

6.8.3. Practice 2

6.8.4. Practice 3

6.9.1. The Citric Acid Cycle - Substrates and Enzymes [detailed]10 min

6.9.2. Practice 1

6.9.3. Practice 2

6.9.4. Practice 3

6.10.1. Utilization of TCA Intermediates2 min

6.11.1. Electron Transport Chain Overview3 min

6.11.2. Example

6.11.3. Practice 12 min

6.11.4. Practice 23 min

6.12.1. The Electron Transport Chain8 min

6.13.1. Fermentation3 min

6.13.2. Practice 1

6.13.3. Practice 2

6.13.4. Practice 3

7. Photosynthesis

1.1hr

7.1.1. Plant Structures for Photosynthesis4 min

7.1.2. Practice 1

7.1.3. Practice 2

7.2.1. Photosynthesis [short]9 min

7.2.2. Practice 12 min

7.2.3. Practice 2

7.3.1. Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis [detailed]10 min

7.3.2. Non-Cyclic and Cyclic Versions of Light-Dependent Reactions3 min

7.3.3. Practice 11 min

7.3.4. Practice 22 min

7.4.1. Calvin Cycle [Carbon Fixation]8 min

7.4.2. Example3 min

7.4.3. Practice 12 min

7.4.4. Practice 23 min

7.5.1. Photorespiration5 min

7.5.2. Practice 13 min

7.6.1. C4 Plants2 min

7.6.2. Practice 1

7.7.1. CAM Plants4 min

7.7.2. Practice 12 min

8. The Cell Cycle

59min

9. DNA Replication & Repair

2.4hr

9.1.1. Review of DNA Structure10 min

9.1.2. Practice 12 min

9.1.3. Practice 2

9.2.1. Meselson-Stahl Experiment9 min

9.2.2. Example: Applying the Meselson-Stahl Experiment2 min

9.2.3. Practice 12 min

9.3.1. DNA Replication in Cells14 min

9.3.2. Example: Leading and Lagging Strands2 min

9.3.3. Practice 12 min

9.3.4. Practice 23 min

9.3.5. Example: Complete the Replication Bubble4 min

9.4.1. Telomerase4 min

9.4.2. Practice 11 min

9.4.3. Practice 22 min

9.5.1. Types of DNA Mutations9 min

9.5.2. Practice 1

9.5.3. Practice 2

9.5.4. Sources of Mutation: Tautomeric Shifts7 min

9.5.5. Example: Tautomeric Shifts4 min

9.5.6. Sources of Mutation: DNA Slippage5 min

9.5.7. Sources of Mutation: Copy Number Variations3 min

9.5.8. Sources of Mutation: Mobile Elements7 min

9.6.1. Repair of Mutations During Replication [Exonuclease Activity and Mismatch Repair]10 min

9.6.2. Repair of Mutations by Mutagens [Nucleotide Excision Repair]3 min

9.6.3. Practice 12 min

9.7.1. Repair of DNA Double Stranded Breaks [detailed]9 min

9.7.2. Practice 12 min

9.8.1. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)10 min

9.8.2. Primer Design3 min

9.8.3. Example 15 min

9.8.4. Practice 12 min

9.8.5. Practice 2

10. Transcription and Translation

1.8hr

10.1.1. The Central Dogma of Biology4 min

10.1.2. Practice 1

10.1.3. Practice 22 min

10.1.4. Practice 32 min

10.2.1. Genes and mRNA8 min

10.2.2. General Structure of mRNA4 min

10.2.3. The Genetic Code8 min

10.2.4. Reading Frame3 min

10.2.5. Practice 13 min

10.2.6. Practice 22 min

10.2.7. Practice 32 min

10.2.8. Practice 43 min

10.2.9. Summary of Genes and mRNA

10.3.1. Initiation8 min

10.3.2. Elongation7 min

10.3.3. Termination4 min

10.3.4. Practice 14 min

10.3.5. Practice 22 min

10.3.6. Practice 3

10.4.1. Transcription In Eukaryotes9 min

10.4.2. Practice 1

10.5.1. RNA Maturation in Eukaryotes8 min

10.5.2. Example 3 min

10.5.3. Practice 11 min

10.5.4. Practice 23 min

10.5.5. mRNA Maturation - Theory3 min

10.6.1. Translation into Proteins9 min

10.6.2. Differences in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Translation3 min

10.6.3. Example 15 min

10.6.4. Example 2

10.6.5. Transcription vs. Translation Chart

10.6.6. Practice 1

10.6.7. Practice 2

11. Gene Expression & Regulation

1.2hr

11.1.1. Introduction to Regulation of Gene Expression4 min

11.1.2. Prokaryotic Levels of Regulation6 min

11.1.3. Prokaryotic Regulatory Proteins5 min

11.1.4. Types of Transcriptional Regulation5 min

11.1.5. Practice 1

11.1.6. Practice 2

11.1.7. Practice 3

11.2.1. The Tryptophan (Trp) Operon5 min

11.2.2. Trp Operon Attenuation8 min

11.2.3. The Trp Operon Summary

11.3.1. The Lac Operon5 min

11.3.2. Practice 1

11.3.3. Practice 2

11.3.4. Practice 3

11.4.1. The Lac Operon [detailed]5 min

11.4.2. The Lac Operon & Glucose Regulation [detailed]5 min

11.4.3. Lac Operon Summary

11.4.4. Example 1

11.4.5. Example 2

11.4.6. Practice 1

11.5.1. The Maltose (mal) Operon 4 min

11.6.1. Epigenetic Gene Regulation5 min

11.6.2. X-Chromosome Inactivation4 min

11.6.3. Practice 1

11.6.4. Practice 2

11.7.1. Transcription Factors, Enhancers and Repressors3 min

11.7.2. Practice 1

11.7.3. Practice 2

11.8.1. Eukaryotic Post-Transcriptional Regulation6 min

11.8.2. Practice 1

11.8.3. Practice 2

11.9.1. Translational and Post-translational Regulation2 min

11.9.2. Practice

12. Meiosis

25min

12.1.1. Meiosis I10 min

12.1.2. Chromosomal Crossover3 min

12.1.3. Meiosis Nomenclature3 min

12.1.4. Practice 1

12.1.5. Practice 2

12.1.6. Practice 3

12.2.1. Meiosis II5 min

12.2.2. Example: Graphing Ploidy & C-value Coefficients4 min

13. Mendelian Genetics

1.8hr

13.1.1. History of Mendelian Genetics4 min

13.1.2. Basics of Probability for Genetics5 min

13.1.3. Example 12 min

13.1.4. Example 22 min

13.1.5. Practice 1

13.2.1. Alleles3 min

13.2.2. Genotype and Phenotype5 min

13.3.1. Incomplete Dominance and Co-Dominance3 min

13.3.2. Example4 min

13.3.3. Practice 1

13.4.1. Mendel's Law of Segregation10 min

13.4.2. Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment6 min

13.4.3. Punnett Square Rules4 min

13.4.4. Example 15 min

13.4.5. Example 29 min

13.4.10. Cheatsheet: Inheritance Terminology

13.5.1. Forked Line Method5 min

13.5.2. Probability Method4 min

13.5.3. Practice 1

13.5.4. Practice 2

13.6.1. Pedigree Analysis9 min

13.7.1. Inheritance of Autosomal Traits9 min

13.7.2. Example 1

13.7.3. Example 2

13.8.1. Inheritance of X-linked Traits

13.8.2. Example 13 min

13.11.1. Blood Types2 min

13.11.2. Practice 1

13.11.3. Pleiotropy, Epistasis and Polygenic Inheritance5 min

13.11.4. Practice 2

13.11.5. Example: Epistasis5 min

13.11.6. Practice 3

14. Modern Concepts of Inheritance

33min

14.1.1. Genetic Linkage4 min

14.1.2. Recombination Frequencies and Linkage Maps6 min

14.2.1. Karyotyping3 min

14.2.2. Practice

14.3.1. Chromosomal Nondisjunction, Aneuploidy and Polyploidy6 min

14.3.2. Example2 min

14.3.3. Practice 1

14.3.4. Practice 27 min

14.4.1. Duplications, Deletions and Inversions4 min

14.4.2. Practice 1

15. Lab Techniques for Biology

1.2hr

15.1.1. Gene Mapping4 min

15.2.1. DNA Sequencing9 min

15.3.1. Centrifugation2 min

15.3.2. Chromatography4 min

15.3.3. Practice

15.4.1. Protein Detection Techniques6 min

15.4.2. SDS-PAGE (Electrophoresis)6 min

15.4.3. Mass Spectrometry2 min

15.4.4. Practice 1

15.5.1. (Agarose) Gel Electrophoresis 3 min

15.6.1. Proteomics4 min

15.6.2. Chromatin Immuno-Precipitation (ChIP) 2 min

15.6.3. Practice 1

15.6.4. Practice 2

15.6.5. Practice 3

15.7.1. Southern Blot2 min

15.7.2. Northern Blot2 min

15.7.3. Practice

15.8.1. Genome Editing11 min

15.8.2. CRISPR [detailed]9 min

15.8.3. Practice 1

15.8.4. Practice 2

15.9.1. Gene Cloning5 min

15.9.2. Plasmids2 min

15.9.3. Restriction Enzymes or Endonucleases3 min

16. The Scientific Method

5min

16.I. Chapter Intro34 sec

16.1.1. The Scientific Method5 min

16.Q. Scientific Method Quiz4 Qns

17. Naming Species

4min

17.1.1. Scientific Nomenclature - Linnaean System4 min

17.1.2. Practice

17.1.3. Practice

17.1.4. Practice

18. Phylogenetic Trees

9min

18.I. Intro: Classification1 min

18.1.1. Phylogenetic Trees4 min

18.1.2. Phylogenetic Trees and Parsimony4 min

18.1.3. Practice

18.1.4. Practice

18.1.5. Practice

18.Q. Quiz: Classification6 Qns

19. Evolution

1.2hr

19.I. Intro: Evolution31 sec

19.1.1. Charles Darwin6 min

19.1.2. Practice

19.1.3. Practice

19.1.4. Practice

19.2.1. Descent with Modification6 min

19.3.1. The Modern Synthesis6 min

19.3.2. Practice

19.3.3. Practice

19.4.1. Evolution of Populations5 min

19.4.2. Example2 min

19.4.3. Practice46 sec

19.4.4. Practice46 sec

19.4.5. Practice1 min

19.4.6. Graphing Allele Frequencies Over Time7 min

19.4.7. Practice: Relative Fitness5 min

19.5.1. Hardy-Weinberg Principle5 min

19.5.2. Hardy-Weinberg Equation5 min

19.5.3. Example4 min

19.5.4. Example: Applying HWE during experimentation5 min

19.5.5. Practice

19.5.6. Practice

19.5.7. Practice: Assortative Mating10 min

19.Q. Quiz: Evolution8 Qns

20. Speciation

9min

20.I. Intro: Origin of Species39 sec

20.1.1. Origin of Species9 min

20.1.2. Practice

20.1.3. Practice

20.1.4. Practice

20.Q. Quiz: Origin of Species5 Qns

21. Prokaryotes

13min

21.I. Intro: Prokaryotes42 sec

21.1.1. Prokaryotes6 min

21.1.2. Practice

21.1.3. Practice

21.1.4. Practice

21.2.1. Diversity of Archaea2 min

21.2.2. Practice

21.3.1. Diversity of Bacteria4 min

21.3.2. Practice

21.3.3. Practice

21.Q. Quiz: Prokaryotes6 Qns

22. Viruses

6min

22.1.1. Viral Morphology and Diversity3 min

22.1.2. Practice

22.1.3. Practice

22.2.1. Viral Infections3 min

23. Eukaryotes

13min

23.I. Intro: Eukaryotes50 sec

23.1.1. Eukaryotes6 min

23.1.2. Practice

23.1.3. Practice

23.1.4. Practice

23.2.1. Unicellular Protists3 min

23.2.2. Practice

23.2.3. Practice

23.2.4. Practice

23.3.1. Multicellular Protists3 min

23.3.2. Practice

23.3.3. Practice

23.3.4. Practice

23.Q. Quiz: Eukaryotes7 Qns

24. Fungi

19min

24.I. Chapter Intro32 sec

24.1.1. Overview of Fungi4 min

24.1.2. Diversity of Fungi5 min

24.2.1. Interactions with Fungi3 min

24.2.2. Fungi as Parasites4 min

24.2.3. Practice

24.2.4. Practice

24.3.1. Humans and Fungi2 min

24.3.2. Practice

24.3.3. Practice

24.3.4. Practice

24.Q. Quiz: Fungi7 Qns

25. Seedless Plants

18min

26. Seed Plants

18min

26.I. Chapter Intro39 sec

26.1.1. Overview of Gymnosperms5 min

26.1.2. Diversity of Gymnosperms2 min

26.2.1. Overview of Angiosperms3 min

26.2.2. Practice

26.2.3. Practice

26.3.1. Angiosperm Reproduction2 min

26.3.2. Advantages of Angiosperm Reproduction2 min

26.3.3. Angiosperm Pollination3 min

26.Q. Quiz: Seed Plants6 Qns

27. Overview of Animals

17min

27.I. Intro: Overview of Animals55 sec

27.1.1. Overview of Animal Structure2 min

27.1.2. Animal Reproduction and Development2 min

27.1.3. Practice

27.1.4. Cell Structure and Specialization5 min

27.1.5. Practice

27.1.6. Practice

27.1.7. Practice

27.2.1. Animal Body Cavities2 min

27.2.2. Practice

27.3.1. Evolution of Animals6 min

27.3.2. Practice

27.3.3. Practice

27.Q. Quiz: Overview of Animals7 Qns

28. Invertebrates (Part 1: Non-Molting)

24min

28.I. Intro: Early Invertebrates38 sec

28.1.1. Sponges4 min

28.1.2. Practice

28.1.3. Practice

28.2.1. Cnidarians4 min

28.2.2. Practice

28.2.3. Practice

28.3.1. Flatworms6 min

28.3.2. Practice

28.3.3. Practice

28.4.1. Annelids5 min

28.4.2. Practice

28.4.3. Practice

28.5.1. Mollusca5 min

28.5.2. Practice

28.5.3. Practice

28.Q. Quiz: Early Invertebrates8 Qns

29. Invertebrates (Part 2: Molting)

33min

29.I. Intro: Complex Invertebrates30 sec

29.1.1. Overview of Ecdysozoa4 min

29.1.2. Practice

29.1.3. Practice

29.2.1. Nematodes2 min

29.2.2. Practice

29.3.1. Overview of Arthropoda3 min

29.3.2. Practice

29.3.3. Practice

29.4.1. Crustaceans4 min

29.4.2. Practice

29.4.3. Practice

29.5.1. Hexapods4 min

29.6.1. Myriapoda2 min

29.6.2. Practice

29.7.1. Chelicerata6 min

29.7.2. Practice

29.7.3. Practice

29.8.1. Deuterostoma4 min

29.8.2. Practice

29.8.3. Practice

29.8.4. Chordates3 min

29.8.5. Practice

29.Q. Quiz: Complex Invertebrates14 Qns

30. Craniates (Developed Heads)

15min

30.I. Intro: Craniates35 sec

30.1.1. Overview of Craniates3 min

30.1.2. Practice

30.1.3. Practice

30.2.1. Vertebrata2 min

30.2.2. Practice

30.2.3. Practice

30.3.1. Gnathostomes6 min

30.3.2. Practice

30.3.3. Practice

30.3.4. Practice

30.4.1. Osteichthyans3 min

30.4.2. Practice

30.4.3. Practice

30.Q. Quiz: Craniates6 Qns

31. Tetrapods (Four Limbs)

25min

32. Plant Physiology

17min

32.1.1. Plant Characteristics1 min

32.1.2. Practice

32.2.1. Plant Tissues4 min

32.2.2. Practice

32.2.3. Practice

32.2.4. Practice

32.3.1. Plant Tissue Systems3 min

32.3.2. Plant Organs3 min

32.3.3. Practice

32.3.4. Practice

32.4.1. Water Transport6 min

32.4.2. Practice

32.4.3. Practice

33. Animal Physiology

23min

33.1.1. Overview of Animal Physiology2 min

33.1.2. Practice

33.2.1. Animal Tissue Types2 min

33.2.2. Practice

33.2.3. Practice

33.3.1. Thermoregulation5 min

33.3.2. Practice

33.3.3. Practice

33.4.1. Osmoregulation5 min

33.4.2. Practice

33.4.3. Practice

33.5.1. Circulation5 min

33.5.2. Practice

33.5.3. Practice

33.5.4. Practice

33.6.1. Respiration5 min

33.6.2. Practice

33.6.3. Practice

34. Ecology

52min

34.1.1. Introduction2 min

34.1.2. Food Webs6 min

34.1.3. Practice

34.1.4. Practice

34.1.5. Practice

34.2.1. Biomes and Abiotic Factors5 min

34.2.2. Practice

34.2.3. Practice

34.3.1. Carbon Cycle3 min

34.3.2. Nitrogen Cycle1 min

34.3.3. Phosphorous Cycle1 min

34.3.4. Practice

34.3.5. Practice

34.3.6. Practice

34.4.1. Community Ecology4 min

34.4.2. Disturbances5 min

34.4.3. Ecology Practice Problem 2 (Community Ecology)

34.4.4. Practice

34.4.5. Practice

34.5.1. Species Interactions5 min

34.5.2. Species Interaction Fillable Summary Sheet

34.5.3. Practice

34.5.4. Practice

34.6.1. Life Histories6 min

34.6.2. Practice

34.6.3. Life Tables4 min

34.6.4. Practice2 min

34.7.1. Survivorship2 min

34.7.2. Practice

34.8.1. Population Growth4 min

34.8.2. Density Dependent Population Growth3 min

BIOL 1620

Course Overview

1. Chemistry of Life

2. Cell Structure

3. The Plasma Membrane

4. Cell Communication

5. Energy & Metabolism

6. Cellular Respiration

7. Photosynthesis

8. The Cell Cycle

9. DNA Replication & Repair

10. Transcription and Translation

11. Gene Expression & Regulation

12. Meiosis

13. Mendelian Genetics

14. Modern Concepts of Inheritance

15. Lab Techniques for Biology

16. The Scientific Method

17. Naming Species

18. Phylogenetic Trees

19. Evolution

20. Speciation

21. Prokaryotes

22. Viruses

23. Eukaryotes

24. Fungi

25. Seedless Plants

26. Seed Plants

27. Overview of Animals

28. Invertebrates (Part 1: Non-Molting)

29. Invertebrates (Part 2: Molting)

30. Craniates (Developed Heads)

31. Tetrapods (Four Limbs)

32. Plant Physiology

33. Animal Physiology

34. Ecology

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